As you can see, molecules have had an enormous impact on the course of human events. Even the slightest chemical change or property can have a major effect on the world. Many of the stories in the book reflect this idea, which I feel is also epitomized in the old English nursery rhyme:
For the want of a nail the shoe was lost.
For the want of a shoe the horse was lost.
For the want of a horse the rider was lost.
For the want of a rider the battle was lost.
For the want of a battle the kingdom was lost.
And all for the want of a horse-shoe nail.
I hope you've enjoyed learning about the stories in Napoleon's Buttons: 17 Molecules That Changed History!
Wednesday, April 25, 2012
Molecules Versus Malaria
The parasite malaria that once infected human beings around the globe, now only affects certain regions, mostly Africa, thanks to a handful of molecules that have either fought malaria itself, or have attacked it at its source: the mosquito. The four species of malaria that infect humans are Plasmodium vivax, P. falciparum, P. malariae, and P. ovale. These four species of malaria would square up with three molecules that would ultimately eliminate this parasite from most of the world. The first of these molecules is quinine, an alkaloid found in the bark of Cinchona (genus) trees. First prescribed by native Americans to visiting Europeans to combat fever, Chinchona bark was soon used as a remedy for malaria in Europe. Quinine, also known as Jesuit's powder (it was Jesuit missionaries who introduced the bark to Europe), proved to be very effective in fighting malaria, and one of its derivatives, chloroquine, was an even greater success, and soon replaced its parent molecule. The second molecule, DDT, which was explained in the previous chapter, was used as an insecticide against the anopheles mosquito, which spread malaria from person to person by sucking their blood. Used extensively and liberally, DDT had completely eliminated malaria in Europe by 1975, and in many other regions of the world, except in Africa. However, Africans do have their own natural defense against malaria:
Hemoglobin, found in red blood cells, transports oxygen around the body. In 25% of Africans however, sickle cell anemia is present and most with this disease die before adulthood. About 50% of Africans are carriers of the disease, but surprisingly, being a carrier is the best case scenario. Though they are not fully affected by the anemia, the anemic hemoglobin works to their advantage as it provides immunity from malaria. Those who have normal hemoglobin are subject to malaria so it is mostly carriers of sickle cell anemia who are able to pass on their genes to the next generation. However, due to carriers being heterozygous, the ratio of anemics to carriers to normal hemoglobin should remain relatively the same, unless of course something is done to upset this balance. Until then however, anemic hemoglobin serves as a protection against malaria along with quinine and formally DDT, the three of which have saved millions of lives.
Hemoglobin, found in red blood cells, transports oxygen around the body. In 25% of Africans however, sickle cell anemia is present and most with this disease die before adulthood. About 50% of Africans are carriers of the disease, but surprisingly, being a carrier is the best case scenario. Though they are not fully affected by the anemia, the anemic hemoglobin works to their advantage as it provides immunity from malaria. Those who have normal hemoglobin are subject to malaria so it is mostly carriers of sickle cell anemia who are able to pass on their genes to the next generation. However, due to carriers being heterozygous, the ratio of anemics to carriers to normal hemoglobin should remain relatively the same, unless of course something is done to upset this balance. Until then however, anemic hemoglobin serves as a protection against malaria along with quinine and formally DDT, the three of which have saved millions of lives.
Chlorocarbon Compounds
Since Ancient times, ice had been used to keep things cool, until around the mid-nineteenth century, when refrigerants began to go into use. Refrigeration is the process by which a refrigerant undergoes an evaporaration-compression cycle, absorbing the heat within a system. In 1877, a cargo of frozen beef was successfully shipped aboard the S.S. Paraguay from Argentina to France, using the refrigeration process for the first time ever. This marked a milestone in the refrigeration industry, and also opened up new opportunities for trade, allowing goods that needed to be kept frozen or chilled to be transported over longer distances. The primary refrigerants used back in the 1800s were ether, ammonia, methyl chloride, and sulfur dioxide, and though they were good refrigerants, they either decomposed, were fire hazards, were poisonous, or smelled terrible. By the early 20th century, compounds called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) replaced the older, less efficient refrigerants, and were seemingly perfect for the job. But CFCs are carbon-based molecules that include chlorine, flourine, and occasionally hydrogen atoms. It is the chlorine in these that was eventually found to cause major problems with the ozone layer, and CFCs were soon after banned from use in most countries. The ozone layer is made of gaseous oxygen atoms, oxygen molecules (O2), and ozone molecules (O3) that are constantly reacting with one another, but keep a balance between these reactions. The chlorine atoms that arise from the CFCs also react with the ozone layer, but upset the natural balance as they break down ozone molecules but do not reform them. When there are disturbances within the ozone layer, harmful rays from the Sun that are ussually kept out by the layer, enter the atmosphere and cause considerable damage. Today, other chlorine-containing compounds that are not harmful to the environment are used as refrigerants and in other systems.
Chlorocarbons have also been used in a variety of other settings, such as in the fields as a pesticide, and in the operating room as anesthetics. Molecules such as dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane, or DDT, have been used extensively as pesticides, but later went out of use as it killed helpful insects as well as harmful ones, and also caused human health issues. Another chlorocarbon, hexachlorophene, was used in many germicide products in the 1950s, but also followed in the steps of DDT as it was soon found to be toxic. As an anesthetic, chlorocarbons also seemed to be ideal for the job, but they were also eventually found to have harmful effects on the body as well. Though most chlorocarbons have been proven to be very harmful to the human body and to the environment, they have also shaped the course of history, having first applied refrigeration in the real world and introducing man to the use of anesthetics among other things.
Chlorocarbons have also been used in a variety of other settings, such as in the fields as a pesticide, and in the operating room as anesthetics. Molecules such as dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane, or DDT, have been used extensively as pesticides, but later went out of use as it killed helpful insects as well as harmful ones, and also caused human health issues. Another chlorocarbon, hexachlorophene, was used in many germicide products in the 1950s, but also followed in the steps of DDT as it was soon found to be toxic. As an anesthetic, chlorocarbons also seemed to be ideal for the job, but they were also eventually found to have harmful effects on the body as well. Though most chlorocarbons have been proven to be very harmful to the human body and to the environment, they have also shaped the course of history, having first applied refrigeration in the real world and introducing man to the use of anesthetics among other things.
Salt
Essential to maintaining life, salt has been the source of wars, urban growth, social and political systems, the rise of global trade, monopolies, industrial advances, and the migration of populations. Today, salt is used freely in our diets and on icy roads among other things, as it is both cheap and widely available. For almost all of recorded history however, it has been just the opposite, with salt being a precious commodity that was needed by everyone. Because of this, populations migrated to areas where salt could be easily extracted, setting up small communities there. These communities prospered, eventually growing into towns and even cities. Some city-states, such as Venice, acquired a monopoly on the salt trade in their region, and often went to war with other countries to maintain their monopoly. One particularly salt-rich area was the Sahara desert, and the salt from here was traded with various nations by Berber traders via camel caravans. Just south of the Sahara, the city of Timbuktu began to prosper from the salt trade and became a major trading post, not to mention a center of Islamic expansion, by the fourteenth century. In Europe, much of this Saharan salt was used to fish for marine life in remote bodies of water, using the salt to preserve the catch until brought back to shore.
Throughout the Ages, salt has been taxed, often excessively, in almost every civilized nation. Both the Greeks and Romans imposed a salt tax, and this practice continued into the Middle Ages and well into modern history. For example, in France the gabelle, an infamous, oppresive, and deplored salt tax, began in 1259 as a moderate tariff on salt to maintain a standing army. However, it grew into a hefty tax that also required French citizens to purchase a weekly amount of salt set by the king. In 1790, during the French Revolution, the gabelle was abolished, but brought back by Napoleon in 1805, and remained in affect until after World War II. Britain also had imposed a salt tax on its people and its colonies, causing some resentment in places like India, which peacefully and successfully revolted from British rule under Mahatma Gandhi in the 1930s. In the American Revolution, the British blocked off salt imports to the colonies, putting a great hardship on the colonists, as salt was still a necessity. In the American Civil War, Union forces captuered Saltville, Virginia in 1864, which proved to be a major blow to southern civilian morale and may have even led to the ultimate defeat of the Confederate Army. Clearly, salt has had a major effect on the course of human events, having shaped the world we now live in.
Click here to see a video on the formation of NaCl (just the first part of the video):
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=yjge1WdCFPs
Throughout the Ages, salt has been taxed, often excessively, in almost every civilized nation. Both the Greeks and Romans imposed a salt tax, and this practice continued into the Middle Ages and well into modern history. For example, in France the gabelle, an infamous, oppresive, and deplored salt tax, began in 1259 as a moderate tariff on salt to maintain a standing army. However, it grew into a hefty tax that also required French citizens to purchase a weekly amount of salt set by the king. In 1790, during the French Revolution, the gabelle was abolished, but brought back by Napoleon in 1805, and remained in affect until after World War II. Britain also had imposed a salt tax on its people and its colonies, causing some resentment in places like India, which peacefully and successfully revolted from British rule under Mahatma Gandhi in the 1930s. In the American Revolution, the British blocked off salt imports to the colonies, putting a great hardship on the colonists, as salt was still a necessity. In the American Civil War, Union forces captuered Saltville, Virginia in 1864, which proved to be a major blow to southern civilian morale and may have even led to the ultimate defeat of the Confederate Army. Clearly, salt has had a major effect on the course of human events, having shaped the world we now live in.
Click here to see a video on the formation of NaCl (just the first part of the video):
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=yjge1WdCFPs
Tuesday, April 24, 2012
Oleic Acid
Olive oil, the prized trading commodity of Ancient Greece, has played a significant role in shaping human history. Olive oil had brought a great wealth to Ancient Greece, as it was essentially the sole object of export by its people, which allowed it to expand its reach and influence and ultimately foster the roots of modern-day Western civilization. The political culture of classical Greece- its concepts of democracy and self-government, philosophy, logic and rational inquiry, scientific and mathematical investigation, education, and the arts- has been reflected in the many civilized Western cultures of today. However, it may have also been olive oil that led to its ultimate fall. Because olive oil was so important to the Greeks, olive cultivation took precedence to the major agricultural products needed for an empire to sustain itself. Because of this, along with internal strife, the collapse of religious traditions, and outside attacks, olive oil is associated with the decline of classical Greece, as well as its upbringing.
Oleic acid, the main component of olive oil, is an eighteen carbon, monounsaturated fatty acid, that has also had an enormous affect on the development of human hygiene. After the collapse of the Greek and Roman empires, the use of olive oil as a body wash was largely abandoned, and would not be revived until the eighth century in France and Spain, where new soaps began to be manufactured. These new castile soaps as they were called, contained olive oil, and therefore oleic acid. Soap is a jumble of fatty acids that form a micelle around a grease particle, and are then washed away by water. The fatty acids form this micelle because the tails of these molecules are repelled by water and attracted to other nonpolar compounds, such as grease, and the heads of the acids remain on the outside, as they are polar and are therefore attracted to the surrounding water. The revival of the art of soap-making has brought modern society to the point it is at today, in which we cleanse our bodies daily and maintain other standards of personal hygiene. The oleic acid molecule has clearly had a great affect on human history, having helped shape the political culture of Western civilization, and though perhaps not as dramatic but none-the-less important, introduced the use of body wash.
Morphine, Nicotine, and Caffeine
The addictive molecules of morphine from the opium poppy, nicotine in tobacco, and caffeine in tea, coffee, and cocoa, have been sought out and prized for millennia, bringing both benefits and dangers to all mankind. They have caused wars, spurred trade, generated fortunes, and enslaved millions among other things. These three came together unexpectedly at one intersection in history that would help shape the modern world before our very eyes.
The use of the opium poppy, originally used as a medicinal herb in the eastern Mediterranean region, spread quickly throughout Europe and Asia, and was soon a foreign commodity in China. Though the opium trade was banned in most countries, including China, it was in high demand by its people. Also in high demand here was tobacco, which the Chinese would mix with the opium and smoke. What China had plenty of, however, was tea. The British Empire, unwilling to pay in silver for the tea leaves that they so valued, entered the illegal opium business and began trading with Chinese buyers. Angered, the Chinese government destroyed a year's supply of opium on British ships unloading in Canton's harbor, prompting the British to declare war. Now known as the First Opium War (1839-1842), the conflict would result in a Chinese defeat that required them to pay large amounts in reparations, open five ports to trade, and to cede Hong Kong to the British. Another Chinese defeat twenty years later in the Second Opium War further broke down Chinese isolation, sending the nation into a period of upheaval and change that culminated in the Revolution of 1911.
Today, morphine and its related compounds are the most effective painkillers known, but a stronger analgesic effect is also correlated with a stronger addiction. For example, codeine (found in opium in small quantities) is less addictive but is also a less effective narcotic. Diacetylmorphine, also known as heroin, is an extremely powerful analgesic, but is far more addictive than morphine. Heroin is banned in most countries today, but is still illegally manufactured and sold on the black market. The nicotine molecule, found in the tobacco plant genus Nicotiana, has also affected man and his history, and has been smoked around the world since its introduction, despite it being outlawed in many countries earlier on, especially in Asia. Tobacco is a crop that requires labor-intensive work, so plantation owners resorted to the use of slaves to cultivate it. Because of this, nicotine joins glucose, cellulose, and indigo as another molecule that promoted slavery in the New World. Caffeine, especially in tea, plays a major role in shaping human history as well. Aside from causing the First Opium War, the human desire for this addictive molecule may have also helped fuel the American Revolution. Tea imported to the colonies by Britain was heavily taxed, which angered many colonists, who, on December 16th, 1773, raided a British cargo ship and threw barrels of tea into the harbor. The event became known as the Boston Tea Party and further strained what relationship Britain and her colonies had left with each other, which eventually culminated in revolution. The impact all three of these addictive molecules had on human history was enormous, having above all else helped China come out of isolation to become one of the world's greatest superpowers, and to even help fuel a revolution that an even greater world power would emerge from.
The use of the opium poppy, originally used as a medicinal herb in the eastern Mediterranean region, spread quickly throughout Europe and Asia, and was soon a foreign commodity in China. Though the opium trade was banned in most countries, including China, it was in high demand by its people. Also in high demand here was tobacco, which the Chinese would mix with the opium and smoke. What China had plenty of, however, was tea. The British Empire, unwilling to pay in silver for the tea leaves that they so valued, entered the illegal opium business and began trading with Chinese buyers. Angered, the Chinese government destroyed a year's supply of opium on British ships unloading in Canton's harbor, prompting the British to declare war. Now known as the First Opium War (1839-1842), the conflict would result in a Chinese defeat that required them to pay large amounts in reparations, open five ports to trade, and to cede Hong Kong to the British. Another Chinese defeat twenty years later in the Second Opium War further broke down Chinese isolation, sending the nation into a period of upheaval and change that culminated in the Revolution of 1911.
Today, morphine and its related compounds are the most effective painkillers known, but a stronger analgesic effect is also correlated with a stronger addiction. For example, codeine (found in opium in small quantities) is less addictive but is also a less effective narcotic. Diacetylmorphine, also known as heroin, is an extremely powerful analgesic, but is far more addictive than morphine. Heroin is banned in most countries today, but is still illegally manufactured and sold on the black market. The nicotine molecule, found in the tobacco plant genus Nicotiana, has also affected man and his history, and has been smoked around the world since its introduction, despite it being outlawed in many countries earlier on, especially in Asia. Tobacco is a crop that requires labor-intensive work, so plantation owners resorted to the use of slaves to cultivate it. Because of this, nicotine joins glucose, cellulose, and indigo as another molecule that promoted slavery in the New World. Caffeine, especially in tea, plays a major role in shaping human history as well. Aside from causing the First Opium War, the human desire for this addictive molecule may have also helped fuel the American Revolution. Tea imported to the colonies by Britain was heavily taxed, which angered many colonists, who, on December 16th, 1773, raided a British cargo ship and threw barrels of tea into the harbor. The event became known as the Boston Tea Party and further strained what relationship Britain and her colonies had left with each other, which eventually culminated in revolution. The impact all three of these addictive molecules had on human history was enormous, having above all else helped China come out of isolation to become one of the world's greatest superpowers, and to even help fuel a revolution that an even greater world power would emerge from.
Monday, April 23, 2012
Molecules of Witchcraft
From the mid-1300s to the late 18th century, hundreds of thousands of Europeans were burned at the stake, hanged, or tortured as witches by their own people. Though the accusers were of a variety of sorts and backgrounds, it was mostly elderly or widowed women that had been accused of witchcraft. Alleged witches were easily convicted, as little evidence was required for one to be found guilty, and occasionally the accused would admit to witchery, even before feeling necessitated to do so by the torture methods used by the courts to elicit confessions. The driving force behind both the discrimination and as to why some falsely confessed, may be explained by a group of molecules called alkaloids (plant compounds that have one or more nitrogen atoms). As part of folklore culture, herbs were often used as remedies for sickness and for other uses, one being to achieve a high. Women in the Middle Ages lived a hard life, so to get high off of herbs every so often was a great relief. The method used to obtain the high was to rub greases and ointments on their skin, which would lead to a night of hallucinations, returning them to a normal state in the morning. The use of such ointments as mandrake, belladonna, and henbane extracts (all alkaloids), may have led them to believe that they were actually witches, having thought to have experienced acts of witchcraft such as flying on a broomstick and dancing with demons. This explains the false confessions as well as why it was mostly women who were accused.
Another group of alkaloid molecules may have even been responsible for the witch-hunts themselves. Compounds such as ergotamine, ergovine, and LSD, all derivatives of the lysergic acid molecule, are known to cause ergotism, whose symptoms include convulsions, seizures, diarrhea, lethergy, manic behavior, and hallucinations among other things. As ergotism had struck many towns seemingly at random, many believed that their town was bewitched if some of the townsfolk experienced ergot poisoning, though we now know that ergotism is caused by fungus growth on crops in damp conditions. The symptoms of the ergot poisoning itself, such as the manic behavior and the hallucinations, may have led the accusers to believe that they had witnessed their neighbor engage in witchcraft, or that they were under a curse of some sort. Though the influence of alkaloids during the witch-hunts is just a hypothesis, this group of molecules did have the potential to cause the mass hysteria that led to the deaths of countless accused witches, which would forever alter the course of human history in Europe and abroad.
Another group of alkaloid molecules may have even been responsible for the witch-hunts themselves. Compounds such as ergotamine, ergovine, and LSD, all derivatives of the lysergic acid molecule, are known to cause ergotism, whose symptoms include convulsions, seizures, diarrhea, lethergy, manic behavior, and hallucinations among other things. As ergotism had struck many towns seemingly at random, many believed that their town was bewitched if some of the townsfolk experienced ergot poisoning, though we now know that ergotism is caused by fungus growth on crops in damp conditions. The symptoms of the ergot poisoning itself, such as the manic behavior and the hallucinations, may have led the accusers to believe that they had witnessed their neighbor engage in witchcraft, or that they were under a curse of some sort. Though the influence of alkaloids during the witch-hunts is just a hypothesis, this group of molecules did have the potential to cause the mass hysteria that led to the deaths of countless accused witches, which would forever alter the course of human history in Europe and abroad.
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| Women accused of being witches were sometimes burned at the stake if not hanged or drowned. |
The Pill
By the middle of the twentieth century, mortality rates were low (due to antibiotics and antiseptics) and women no longer needed a multitude of children to ensure that some reached maturity. Now, ways to limit family size were sought after, and in 1960, an answer was found in the norethindrone molecule, the first oral contraceptive, usually known as "the pill." Whether or not this molecule had a positive effect or just the opposite is a matter of opinion, but it has no doubt played a major role in shaping contemporary society. It has been both credited with and blamed for the sexual revolution of the 1960s, the women's liberation movement, the rise of feminism, the increased percentage of women in the workplace, and even the breakdown of the family. Earlier in the century, other contraceptive methods had been in use but, the idea of birth control was not widely accepted due to issues of morality, family values, possible health problems, and long-term effects among other reasons. By the 1930s, birth control had been given the more acceptable term family planning, yet even by the time "the pill" had been introduced, there was much debate over the subject, that still continues to this day.
The norethindrone in the pill is a steroid, meant to mimic the pregnancy hormone progesterone. A steroid is a compound that has three six carbon rings and one five carbon ring fused together. What makes steroids different from one another are their side groups and the locations of their double bonds. The male sex hormones (androgens), female sex hormones (estrogens), and pregnancy hormones (progestins) are all steroids and are produced naturally in the body. The idea behind birth control is to give the body artificial pregnancy hormones so that it will stop producing its own. The artificial hormone has a slichtly different chemical structure than progesterone, so it will not carry out its basic functions, thereby suppressing ovulation. When first developed, the norethindrone pill was tested in Peurto Rico, where families had grown too large to sustain themselves, and where there was no shortage of volunteers for the trials. First administered in 10-milligram doses, it was soon reduced to 5-milligram, and later less than 2-milligram doses. The morality issue of these the Peurto Rican tests, and of birth control itself, still remain controversial to this day, but the pill has no doubt impacted today's society. Now that women have control over their own bodies, they have expanded their horizons to equal those of men.
The norethindrone in the pill is a steroid, meant to mimic the pregnancy hormone progesterone. A steroid is a compound that has three six carbon rings and one five carbon ring fused together. What makes steroids different from one another are their side groups and the locations of their double bonds. The male sex hormones (androgens), female sex hormones (estrogens), and pregnancy hormones (progestins) are all steroids and are produced naturally in the body. The idea behind birth control is to give the body artificial pregnancy hormones so that it will stop producing its own. The artificial hormone has a slichtly different chemical structure than progesterone, so it will not carry out its basic functions, thereby suppressing ovulation. When first developed, the norethindrone pill was tested in Peurto Rico, where families had grown too large to sustain themselves, and where there was no shortage of volunteers for the trials. First administered in 10-milligram doses, it was soon reduced to 5-milligram, and later less than 2-milligram doses. The morality issue of these the Peurto Rican tests, and of birth control itself, still remain controversial to this day, but the pill has no doubt impacted today's society. Now that women have control over their own bodies, they have expanded their horizons to equal those of men.
Sunday, April 22, 2012
Wonder Drugs
Over the years, thousands of different pharmaceutical compounds have been synthesized, have saved countless lives, and have affected history by various other means. One particular pharmaceutical that has changed the way we live is the pain-relieving molecule aspirin. Also known as acetyl salicylic acid, aspirin was first produced by the German Bayer dying company, and begins its formation as salicyl alcohol (a phenol derivative), which is produced from the flowers of meadowsweet, or Spiraea ulmaria. The alcohol is then oxidized to become salicylic acid, whose hydrogen atom on its hydroxide group is replaced with an acetyl group (CH3CO), to form its final product, aspirin. During World War I, Bayer bought large amounts of phenol so that they could manufacture enough aspirin, which took away from the phenol supply of other natons. This meant that the phenol-based explosive compound of picric acid would be harder to produce, which hastened the the development of TNT-based explosives in these countries. After over a century since it was first marketed by Bayer in 1899, aspirin has become the most widely used of all drugs for treating illness and injury, with over forty million pounds of aspirin being produced annually in the U.S. alone.
Two other pharmaceuticals, sulfa drugs and penicillans, both antibiotics, have also shaped human history as they have saved millions of lives in fighting off various diseases. Sulfa drugs, or sulfanilamides, can be administered as the dye protosil red, which will then break down in the body to form this useful antibiotic. There are several derivatives to the sulfanilamide molecule that serve various purposes: sulfapyridine is used to fight pneumonia, sulfathiazole for gastrointestinal infections, and sulfacetamide for urinary tract infections. Penicillans, such as penicillin G, penicillin O, ampicillin, amoxicillin, and cloxacillin, also have widespread imlications in the field of medicine. This family of pharmaceuticals is effective in fighting against bacteria such as those that cause meningitis, gonorrhea, and streptococcal infections such as strep throat. With the countless lives these pharmaceuticals have saved, which can be seen from the life expectancy increase by over thirty years since the beginning of the early modern era, these molecules have the right to be called wonder drugs.
Two other pharmaceuticals, sulfa drugs and penicillans, both antibiotics, have also shaped human history as they have saved millions of lives in fighting off various diseases. Sulfa drugs, or sulfanilamides, can be administered as the dye protosil red, which will then break down in the body to form this useful antibiotic. There are several derivatives to the sulfanilamide molecule that serve various purposes: sulfapyridine is used to fight pneumonia, sulfathiazole for gastrointestinal infections, and sulfacetamide for urinary tract infections. Penicillans, such as penicillin G, penicillin O, ampicillin, amoxicillin, and cloxacillin, also have widespread imlications in the field of medicine. This family of pharmaceuticals is effective in fighting against bacteria such as those that cause meningitis, gonorrhea, and streptococcal infections such as strep throat. With the countless lives these pharmaceuticals have saved, which can be seen from the life expectancy increase by over thirty years since the beginning of the early modern era, these molecules have the right to be called wonder drugs.
Dyes
The use of dyes dates back thousands of years, and still continues to this day, perhaps more than ever. Though they may seem insignificant in shaping human histroy, they have in fact caused indirect developments in other fields. For example, the dye indigo, from the Indigofera tinctoria plant, was first synthetically produced and marketed by the German chemical company Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik (BASF). This gave it the financial capital and chemical knowledge to expand into a variety of other fields and become one of the five largest chemical companies in the world. The indigo molecule is blue, but is the product of two colorless oxidized indican molecules. Most dyes follow this pattern, being altered from their colorless parent molecule to form colored compounds, such as alizarin (Turkey red) and its parent molecule anthraquinone. The French army incorporated both indigo and alizarin into their military uniforms, as well as the uniforms they supplied to the United States during the American Revolution.
Another example is the colorless naphthoquinone which produces its derivatives of juglone (brown) found in walnuts, and lawsone (red-orange) found in Indian henna. Naphthoquinone is also the parent molecule of echinochrome, carminic acid, and kermesic acid. Echinochrome is a red pigment found in sand dollars and sea urchins. Carminic acid, which makes up the scarlet cochineal dye once used by the Aztecs, contains numerous hydroxide groups, which is attributed to a brighter color. The British army adopted cochineal-dyed uniforms in the 1700s, and became known thereafter as redcoats. Kermesic acid was similar to carminic acid but was found in Egypt and never went into widespread use.
The primary yellow dye in use since ancient times and up until recently was saffron, from the Crocus sativus plant. Similar to beta-carotene, found in carrots, saffron is a long carbon chain with alternating double bonds. Another yellow dye used was picric acid (trinitrophenol), but was also highly explosive and was later used by the British in the early stages of the first World War. Synthetic dyes, such as mauve which produced a brilliant lavender purple, soon replaced naural dyes, and promoted the growth of numerous chemical companies, especially those in Germany. Though the affect of dyes on human history may not be so obvious as the affect other compounds had, they certainly made their mark, one way or another.
Another example is the colorless naphthoquinone which produces its derivatives of juglone (brown) found in walnuts, and lawsone (red-orange) found in Indian henna. Naphthoquinone is also the parent molecule of echinochrome, carminic acid, and kermesic acid. Echinochrome is a red pigment found in sand dollars and sea urchins. Carminic acid, which makes up the scarlet cochineal dye once used by the Aztecs, contains numerous hydroxide groups, which is attributed to a brighter color. The British army adopted cochineal-dyed uniforms in the 1700s, and became known thereafter as redcoats. Kermesic acid was similar to carminic acid but was found in Egypt and never went into widespread use.
The primary yellow dye in use since ancient times and up until recently was saffron, from the Crocus sativus plant. Similar to beta-carotene, found in carrots, saffron is a long carbon chain with alternating double bonds. Another yellow dye used was picric acid (trinitrophenol), but was also highly explosive and was later used by the British in the early stages of the first World War. Synthetic dyes, such as mauve which produced a brilliant lavender purple, soon replaced naural dyes, and promoted the growth of numerous chemical companies, especially those in Germany. Though the affect of dyes on human history may not be so obvious as the affect other compounds had, they certainly made their mark, one way or another.
Isoprene
Rubber, the simplest natural polymer known to man, has shaped and still shapes the world we live in today, in both positive and negative ways. Rubber components for machines, such as belts, gaskets, joints, valves, o-rings, washers, tires, and seals have allowed for major developments in transportation and the indusrial world. Mechanization of agriculture has allowed the growth of cities and has changed our society from a rural to an urban one. Though rubber has fueled the mechanization of the world, its negative effects can still be seen. In tropical rainforests such as the Amazon and the Congo, where rubber can be tapped from natural sources, members of the wealthy class (mostly whites) had once exerted power over members of the lower class, forcing them to extract rubber from these sources, in a system of indebted bondage close to that of slavery. Once rubber could be produced synthetically, however, these rubber barons went out of business, but the effects of the shameful treatment of the indigenous populations of these regions still lasts in the the form of ethnic and political strife.
Natural rubber is a polymer of the molecule isoprene, which has the following chemical structure:
When polymerized, the double bonds become single and the bond between the two center carbons becomes double. The CH2 group of one molecule bonds with the CH2 group of another. If the two CH2 groups of the isoprene molecules are on the same side of the carbon double bond, it is a cis polymer. If they are on opposite sides of the carbon double bond, as in the illustration above, it will produce a trans polymer. The cis arrangement is what natural rubber is made out of, giving it its elastic properties, where the trans arrangement causes less elasticity, and can be found in products such as golf balls. Both of these molecules have shaped history, however, in both developmental and detrimental ways, and will continue to do so, as it will also likely shape our exploration of the future, as it is an essential component of space stations, space suits, rockets, and shuttles.
Natural rubber is a polymer of the molecule isoprene, which has the following chemical structure:
When polymerized, the double bonds become single and the bond between the two center carbons becomes double. The CH2 group of one molecule bonds with the CH2 group of another. If the two CH2 groups of the isoprene molecules are on the same side of the carbon double bond, it is a cis polymer. If they are on opposite sides of the carbon double bond, as in the illustration above, it will produce a trans polymer. The cis arrangement is what natural rubber is made out of, giving it its elastic properties, where the trans arrangement causes less elasticity, and can be found in products such as golf balls. Both of these molecules have shaped history, however, in both developmental and detrimental ways, and will continue to do so, as it will also likely shape our exploration of the future, as it is an essential component of space stations, space suits, rockets, and shuttles.
Phenol
The phenol molecule, a simple aromatic molecule consisting of a benzene ring and an attached hydroxide (OH) group, has had a profound impact on society since its discovery in the mid-1800s by physician Joseph Lister. Lister, who was in the practice of surgery, wanted to improve the conditions at hospitals where death rates from the so-called hospital disease were appalling. We know today that it is actually a group of diseases with a variety of causes that is passed between patients and doctors due to unsanitary conditions, but at this point in history the theory of the presence of germs was newly found and was rejected by many. Lister, however, did believe in the existence of germs and the affect they had, so he developed a procedure to carefully clean the operating room and the patient before, during, and after surgery, which resulted in infection-free operations that soon convinced other surgeons to follow by his example. Carbolic acid, derived from coal tar, was the solution used in this sanitation process, and the phenol molecule is its main constituent.
The word phenol not only refers to the phenol molecule, but also to the phenol family to which it belongs. The antiseptic agents trichlorophenol and hexylresorcinol, and the dye trinitrophenol belong to this family, being derivatives of the phenol molecule. Also members of this family are the aromatic molecules of capsaicin, zingerone, vanillin, eugenol, and isoeugenol. More complex molecules, such as marijuana's active ingredient tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the toxic compound gossypol, and epigallocatechin-3-gallate (found in green tea), are also members of the phenol family.
Despite its many derivatives, the parent phenol molecule has brought about the greatest changes in our world. In 1907, Belgian American Leo Baekeland, while working for the Eastman Kodak Company, produced a liquid that rapidly hardened into an amber-colored solid that conformed into whatever shape the mold it was poured into was. The new substance, which he called Bakelite, was a polymer of phenol molecules linked by CH2 cross-links, and had seemingly endless favorable properties. Among its many beneficial properties were its rigidity, heat resistance, and that it did not react easily. Now known as plastic, Bakelite had far more success than other synthetic materials intended to perform the same role, such as celluloid and shellac, which were often flammable or melted easily. Plastic soon replaced ivory, which had endangered elephant populations, in a variety of items from buttons to billiard balls. The phenol molecule, members of the phenol family, and its derivatives have no doubt had a lasting impact on human society, having permitted antiseptic surgery and having begun an Age of Plastics.
The word phenol not only refers to the phenol molecule, but also to the phenol family to which it belongs. The antiseptic agents trichlorophenol and hexylresorcinol, and the dye trinitrophenol belong to this family, being derivatives of the phenol molecule. Also members of this family are the aromatic molecules of capsaicin, zingerone, vanillin, eugenol, and isoeugenol. More complex molecules, such as marijuana's active ingredient tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the toxic compound gossypol, and epigallocatechin-3-gallate (found in green tea), are also members of the phenol family.
Despite its many derivatives, the parent phenol molecule has brought about the greatest changes in our world. In 1907, Belgian American Leo Baekeland, while working for the Eastman Kodak Company, produced a liquid that rapidly hardened into an amber-colored solid that conformed into whatever shape the mold it was poured into was. The new substance, which he called Bakelite, was a polymer of phenol molecules linked by CH2 cross-links, and had seemingly endless favorable properties. Among its many beneficial properties were its rigidity, heat resistance, and that it did not react easily. Now known as plastic, Bakelite had far more success than other synthetic materials intended to perform the same role, such as celluloid and shellac, which were often flammable or melted easily. Plastic soon replaced ivory, which had endangered elephant populations, in a variety of items from buttons to billiard balls. The phenol molecule, members of the phenol family, and its derivatives have no doubt had a lasting impact on human society, having permitted antiseptic surgery and having begun an Age of Plastics.
Tuesday, April 17, 2012
Silk and Nylon
Silk has always been a luxury fabric prized by the wealthy of society; its many properties such as its warmth in cool weather and coolness in warm weather, its caressing feel, its wonderful luster, and its capabilty to be easily dyed, have made it so. First produced in China circa 2500 BC, silk is obtained by boiling the cocoons of silkworms and then unwinding the silk thread onto reels. Until around the sixth century AD, the Chinese had a monopoly over silk production, who then sold their products to foreign traders who brought it to various locations around the world via the Silk Road, which stretched from China to eastern Europe. Once the secrets of silk cultivation, also known as sericulture, became known about three thousand years later, European nations, especially those in Itlay, became major producers. In the New World however, sericulture was not as successful, but important developments that mechanized the spinning and weaving process were made here, mostly in the United States.
But what is it that makes silk such a desirable fabric? Silk, being a protein, is a polymer made of a variety of amino acids. Every amino acid has the basic structure H2N-CH-COOH, with a side group attached to the center, or alpha, carbon. The side group can range from a simple hydrogen atom to a far more complex molecule, and is what gives the amino acid its own unique properties. There are 22 amino acids, so a polymer of just four amino acids has 234,256 possible combinations. The polymer chains are in a zigzag arrangement, and lie parallel with adjacent chains running in opposite directions, held together by cross attractions. This produces a pleated sheet structure, which gives it the flexibilty it needs without stretching it. These properties make silk a very versatile fabric, but also makes it difficult to replicate.
None the less, attempts to find a synthetic silk were made. Such attempts proved fruitless, as the structure of silk was far too difficult to replicate, so the search for different fabrics that could fulfill the same properties of silk began. Artificial silks based on cellulose, called rayons, had similar properties to silk, but had many weaknesses: Chardonnet silk was flammable, and viscose, though still in production today, absorbs water easily. However, in 1938, a noncellulose based substitute for silk, known as nylon, went on the market. Nylon, created by Wallace Carothers at DuPont Fibersilk Company, differs from silk in that instead of being a polymer of amino acids that each have an acid group (COOH) and an amine group (NH2), it consists of two alternating molecules. These are 1,6 diaminohexane, which has two amine groups, and apidic acid, which has two acid groups. The polymer units are bonded like they are in silk, through amide links, and is structured in much the same way. This new artificial silk was a huge success, as it had exceptional strength, durability, and lightness. During World War II, tire cords, mosquito netting, weather balloons, ropes, parachute shrouds, and other military items were made of nylon. Both silk and nylon have had a significant impact on human society, having opened worldwide trade routes and promoted various other developments that we rely on today.
But what is it that makes silk such a desirable fabric? Silk, being a protein, is a polymer made of a variety of amino acids. Every amino acid has the basic structure H2N-CH-COOH, with a side group attached to the center, or alpha, carbon. The side group can range from a simple hydrogen atom to a far more complex molecule, and is what gives the amino acid its own unique properties. There are 22 amino acids, so a polymer of just four amino acids has 234,256 possible combinations. The polymer chains are in a zigzag arrangement, and lie parallel with adjacent chains running in opposite directions, held together by cross attractions. This produces a pleated sheet structure, which gives it the flexibilty it needs without stretching it. These properties make silk a very versatile fabric, but also makes it difficult to replicate.
None the less, attempts to find a synthetic silk were made. Such attempts proved fruitless, as the structure of silk was far too difficult to replicate, so the search for different fabrics that could fulfill the same properties of silk began. Artificial silks based on cellulose, called rayons, had similar properties to silk, but had many weaknesses: Chardonnet silk was flammable, and viscose, though still in production today, absorbs water easily. However, in 1938, a noncellulose based substitute for silk, known as nylon, went on the market. Nylon, created by Wallace Carothers at DuPont Fibersilk Company, differs from silk in that instead of being a polymer of amino acids that each have an acid group (COOH) and an amine group (NH2), it consists of two alternating molecules. These are 1,6 diaminohexane, which has two amine groups, and apidic acid, which has two acid groups. The polymer units are bonded like they are in silk, through amide links, and is structured in much the same way. This new artificial silk was a huge success, as it had exceptional strength, durability, and lightness. During World War II, tire cords, mosquito netting, weather balloons, ropes, parachute shrouds, and other military items were made of nylon. Both silk and nylon have had a significant impact on human society, having opened worldwide trade routes and promoted various other developments that we rely on today.
Saturday, April 14, 2012
Nitro Compounds
Besides cellulose derivatives, there are many other explosive molecules that have been discovered, most of which contain a nitro group (NO2). Known as nitro compounds, these substances have been in use for millenia and can range considerably in their explosive power, depending on how many nitro groups are in the compound. The first explosive mixture ever invented was gunpowder, also known as black powder, and was used in Ancient China, Arabia, and India. Gunpowder works by igniting a certain proportion of potassium nitrate (also known as saltpeter), sulfur, and carbon (in the form of wood charcoal), which react to produce hot, rapidly expanding gases. These gases expand so violently that a deadly shock wave is often produced, that can also propel a projectile such as a bullet or a cannonball, which is where its application in warfare becomes apparent. The first firearm, the firelock, was developed in the early 1300s and was essentially an iron tube loaded with gunpowder that was ignited by the insertion of a heated wire.
The nitrogen gas that is formed in these reactions provides the main driving force behind the explosion, as the triple bond between the two nitrogen molecules makes it very stable. One example of a nitrocompound, nitrotoluene, has only one nitro group, so it does not produce as much nitrogen gas as dinitrotoluene or trinitrotoluene (TNT), which have two and three nitro groups respectively. Another nitro molecule called nitroglycerin is also extremely volatile, but is also very dangerous as it was often unpredictable and was too easily detonated. Though the manufacture of this compound leveled many factories and killed thousands of workers, the demand for it was high and production continued. Swedish scientist Alfred Nobel developed a method however in the mid 1800s that would allow the compound nitroglycerin to be used safely and reliably. He stabilized the substance by mixing it with about one-third weight of kieselguhr, which is the remains of tiny marine animals. These two substances combine to form a plastic mass with a putty-like consistency that was easy to control but could still be detonated.
Although Nobel had intended for his invention to be used as a deterrant from war, by the late 1800s it was being used widely as a weapon of warfare, and it was first used on a grand scale in World War I. However, the use of explosives in combat also led to further developments. Germany relied heavily on TNT during the war, which requires saltpeter, which it bought from Chile. When the British blockaded the trade route between the two nations, Germany worked to find a way to synthetically produce the saltpeter compound. By 1913, German chemists had managed to do so in a process that began with the synthetic production of ammonia. This production of ammonia also greatly helped to produce efficient fertilizers that are now crucial to sustaining world agriculture. As one can see, the effects of nitro compounds on world society are widespread, having increased our ability to wage war, to construct tunnels and canals, and has even indirectly promoted improvments in world agriculture.
The nitrogen gas that is formed in these reactions provides the main driving force behind the explosion, as the triple bond between the two nitrogen molecules makes it very stable. One example of a nitrocompound, nitrotoluene, has only one nitro group, so it does not produce as much nitrogen gas as dinitrotoluene or trinitrotoluene (TNT), which have two and three nitro groups respectively. Another nitro molecule called nitroglycerin is also extremely volatile, but is also very dangerous as it was often unpredictable and was too easily detonated. Though the manufacture of this compound leveled many factories and killed thousands of workers, the demand for it was high and production continued. Swedish scientist Alfred Nobel developed a method however in the mid 1800s that would allow the compound nitroglycerin to be used safely and reliably. He stabilized the substance by mixing it with about one-third weight of kieselguhr, which is the remains of tiny marine animals. These two substances combine to form a plastic mass with a putty-like consistency that was easy to control but could still be detonated.
Although Nobel had intended for his invention to be used as a deterrant from war, by the late 1800s it was being used widely as a weapon of warfare, and it was first used on a grand scale in World War I. However, the use of explosives in combat also led to further developments. Germany relied heavily on TNT during the war, which requires saltpeter, which it bought from Chile. When the British blockaded the trade route between the two nations, Germany worked to find a way to synthetically produce the saltpeter compound. By 1913, German chemists had managed to do so in a process that began with the synthetic production of ammonia. This production of ammonia also greatly helped to produce efficient fertilizers that are now crucial to sustaining world agriculture. As one can see, the effects of nitro compounds on world society are widespread, having increased our ability to wage war, to construct tunnels and canals, and has even indirectly promoted improvments in world agriculture.
Cellulose
Where sugar began the slave trade in the early 1500s, it was another product, cotton, that maintained it through to the late 1800s. Cotton accounted for approximately two-thirds of the total value of U.S. exports by 1860 (when there was a total of four million slaves in the U.S.), most of these exports going to Europe where the raw crop was made into manufactured goods. Among these European buyers of raw cotton, Great Britain was the most prominent, whose climate was ideal for the spinning and weaving of cotton threads. During the 1800s, England experienced rapid industrial growth that stemmed from the mass manufacturing of cotton products. The agriculture-based areas of the English Midlands were soon turned into factory towns in which workers, many of whom were children, lived under deplorable conditions that prompted humanitarian efforts across England. Profits from the manufacturing of cotton were used to further industrialize the region. Canals, railways, and new factories sprung up, and this industrial expansion in England would forever change its landscape. In time however, as the countries Britain imported cotton from became industrialized themselves, England's manufacturing of cotton products met with decline.
The polysaccarhide cellulose, which makes up 90% of the cotton plant, is simply a chain of glucose molecules bonded together through condensation. Condensation occurs when the hydroxide (OH) group of two glucose molecules interact and form an H2O molecule and leave an oxygen to bond the two glucose structures together. Cellulose is strictly a structural polysaccharide however, as the human body cannot digest it. Storage polysaccharides, such as starch (found in plants) and glycogen (found in animals), are digestible and are basically slight variations of cellulose. Other compounds similar to cellulose have very different functions. Nitrocellulose (a cellulose derivative whose glucose molecules have an NO2 group instead of an OH group) is extremely volatile and was considered as an alternative to gunpowder, but failed to replace it as a number of violent factory explosions shut down the industry. Cellulose acetate, another cellulose derivative, was found to be less flammable and is used today in many commercial enterprises such as the photography business and the movie industry. The effect of cellulose is undoubtedly substantial, having sustained slavery in the southern United States, which would eventually cause a civil war, and having sparked an Industrial Revolution that would began in England but soon riveted around the world.
The polysaccarhide cellulose, which makes up 90% of the cotton plant, is simply a chain of glucose molecules bonded together through condensation. Condensation occurs when the hydroxide (OH) group of two glucose molecules interact and form an H2O molecule and leave an oxygen to bond the two glucose structures together. Cellulose is strictly a structural polysaccharide however, as the human body cannot digest it. Storage polysaccharides, such as starch (found in plants) and glycogen (found in animals), are digestible and are basically slight variations of cellulose. Other compounds similar to cellulose have very different functions. Nitrocellulose (a cellulose derivative whose glucose molecules have an NO2 group instead of an OH group) is extremely volatile and was considered as an alternative to gunpowder, but failed to replace it as a number of violent factory explosions shut down the industry. Cellulose acetate, another cellulose derivative, was found to be less flammable and is used today in many commercial enterprises such as the photography business and the movie industry. The effect of cellulose is undoubtedly substantial, having sustained slavery in the southern United States, which would eventually cause a civil war, and having sparked an Industrial Revolution that would began in England but soon riveted around the world.
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